Human Rights Violations Essay

Human rights are commonly understood as â€Å"inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being.†[1] Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law. The doctrine of human rights in international practice, within international law, global and regional institutions, in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental organizations, has been a cornerstone of public policy around the world. The idea of human rights states, â€Å"if the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights.† Despite this, the strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke considerable skepticism and debates about the content, nature and justifications of human rights to this day. Indeed, the question of what is meant by a â€Å"right† is itself controversial and the subject of continued philosophical debate. Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The ancient world did not possess the concept of universal human rights. Ancient societies had â€Å"elaborate systems of duties†¦ conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights†. The modern concept of human rights developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval Natural law tradition that became prominent during the Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. From this foundation, the modern human rights arguments emerged over the latter half of the twentieth century. Gelling as social activism and political rhetoric in many nations put it high on the world agenda. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. History of concept The modern sense of human rights can be traced to Renaissance Europe and the Protestant Reformation, alongside the disappearance of the feudal authoritarianism and religious conservativism that dominated the Middle Ages. Human rights were defined as a result of European scholars attempting to form a â€Å"secularized version of Judeo-Christian ethics†. Although ideas of rights and liberty have existed in some form for much of human history, they do not resemble the modern conception of human rights. According to Jack Donnelly, in the ancient world, â€Å"traditional societies typically have had elaborate systems of duties†¦ conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights. These institutions and practices are alternative to, rather than different formulations of, human rights†. The most commonly held view is that concept of human rights evolved i n the West, and that while earlier cultures had important ethical concepts, they generally lacked a concept of human rights. For example, McIntyre argues there is no word for â€Å"right† in any language before 1400. Medieval charters of liberty such as the English Magna Carta were not charters of human rights, rather they were the foundation and constituted a form of limited political and legal agreement to address specific political circumstances, in the case of Magna Carta later being recognised in the course of early modern debates about rights. One of the oldest records of human rights is the statute of Kalisz (1264), giving privileges to the Jewish minority in the Kingdom of Poland such as protection from discrimination and hate speech. The basis of most modern legal interpretations of human rights can be traced back to recent European history. The Twelve Articles (1525) are considered to be the first record of human rights in Europe. They were part of the peasants’ demands raised towards the Swabian League in the German Peasants’ War in Germany. The earliest conceptualization of human rights is credited to ideas about natural rights emanating from natural law. In particular, the issue of universal rights was introduced by the examination of the rights of indigenous peoples by Spanish clerics, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomà © de Las Casas. In the Valladolid debate, Juan Ginà ©s de Sepà ºlveda, who maintained an Aristotelian view of humanity as divided into classes of different worth, argued with Las Casas, who argued in favor of equal rights to freedom of slavery for all humans regardless of race or religion. In Britain in 1683, the English Bill of Rights (or â€Å"An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown†) and the Scottish Claim of Right each made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions. Two major revolutions occurred during the 18th century, in the United States (1776) and in France (1789), leading to the adoption of the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively, both of which established certain legal rights. Additionally, the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 encoded into law a number of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen approved by the National Assembly of France, August 26, 1789. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. —United States Declaration of Independence, 1776 These were followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and G.W.F. Hegel during the 18th and 19th centuries. The term human rights probably came into use some time between Paine’s The Rights of Man and William Lloyd Garrison’s 1831 writings in The Liberator, in which he stated that he was trying to enlist his readers in â€Å"the great cause of human rights†. In the 19th century, human rights became a central concern over the issue of slavery. A number of reformers, such as William Wilberforce in Britain, worked towards the abolition of slavery. This was achieved in the British Empire by the Slave Trade Act 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. In the United States, all the northern states had abolished the institution of slavery between 1777 and 1804, although southern states clung tightly to the â€Å"peculiar institution†. Conflict and debates over the expansion of slavery to new territories constituted one of the reasons for the southern states’ secession and the American Civil War. During the reconstruction period immediately following the war, several amendments to the United States Constitution were made. These included the 13th amendment, banning slavery, the 14th amendment, assuring full citizenship and civil rights to all people born in the United States, and the 15th amendment, guaranteeing African Americans the right to vote. Many groups and movements have achieved profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labor. The women’s rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. One of the most influential was Mahatma Gandhi’s movement to free his native India from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the African American Civil Rights Movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States. The establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the 1864 Lieber Code and the first of the Geneva Conventions in 1864 laid the foundations of International humanitarian law, to be further developed following the two World Wars. The World Wars, and the huge losses of life and gross abuses of human rights that took place during them, were a driving force behind the development of modern human rights instruments. The League of Nations was established in 1919 at the negotiations over the Treaty of Versailles following the end of World War I. The League’s goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy, and improving global welfare. Enshrined in its charter was a mandate to promote many of the rights later included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied Powers agreed to create a new body to supplant the League’s role; this was to be the United Nations. The United Nations has played an important role in international human-rights law since its creation. Following the World Wars, the United Nations and its members developed much of the discourse and the bodies of law that now make up international humanitarian law and international human rights law. Philosophy The philosophy of human rights attempts to examine the underlying basis of the concept of human rights and critically looks at its content and justification. Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights have become a part of social expectations. One of the oldest Western philosophies of human rights is that they are a product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume). Human rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). These approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls) – a social contract. The two theories that dominate contemporary human rights discussion are the interest theory and the will theory. Interest theory argues that the principal function of human rights is to protect and promote certain essential human interests, while will theory attempts to establish the validity of human rights based on the unique human capacity for freedom. Non-governmental Organizations International non-governmental human rights organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, International Service for Human Rights and FIDH monitor what they see as human rights issues around the world and promote their views on the subject. Human rights organizations have been said to â€Å"†translate complex international issues into activities to be undertaken by concerned citizens in their own community† Human rights organizations frequently engage in lobbying and advocacy in an effort to convince the United Nations, supranational bodies and national governments to adopt their policies on human rights. Many human-rights organizations have observer status at the various UN bodies tasked with protecting human rights. A new (in 2009) nongovernmental human-rights conference is the Oslo Freedom Forum, a gathering described by The Economist as â€Å"on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum.† The same article noted that human-rights advocates are more and more divided amongst themselves over how violations of human rights are to be defined, notably as regards the Middle East. There is criticism of human-rights organisations who use their status but allegedly move away from their stated goals. For example, Gerald M. Steinberg, an Israel-based academic, maintains that NGOs take advantage of a â€Å"halo effect† and are â€Å"given the status of impartial moral watchdogs† by governments and the media. Such critics claim that this may be seen at various governmental levels, including when human-rights groups testify before investigation committees. Human rights defenders Main article: Human rights defender A human rights defender is someone who, individually or with others, acts to promote or protect human rights. Human rights defenders are those men and women who act peacefully for the promotion and protection of those rights. Corporations Multinational companies play an increasingly large role in the world, and have been responsible for numerous human rights abuses. Although the legal and moral environment surrounding the actions of governments is reasonably well developed, that surrounding multinational companies is both controversial and ill-defined.[citation needed] Multinational companies’ primary responsibility is to their shareholders, not to those affected by their actions. Such companies may be larger than the economies of some of the states within which they operate, and can wield significant economic and political power. No international treaties exist to specifically cover the behavior of companies with regard to human rights, and national legislation is very variable. Jean Ziegler, Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights on the right to food stated in a report in 2003: [T]he growing power of transnational corporations and their extension of power through privatization, deregulation and the rolling back of the State also mean that it is now time to develop binding legal norms that hold corporations to human rights standards and circumscribe potential abuses of their position of power. —Jean Ziegler In August 2003 the Human Rights Commission’s Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights produced draft Norms on the responsibilities of transnational corporations and other business enterprises with regard to human rights. These were considered by the Human Rights Commission in 2004, but have no binding status on corporations and are not monitored. Human rights violations Human rights violations occur when actions by state (or non-state) actors abuse, ignore, or deny basic human rights (including civil, political, cultural, social, and economic rights). Furthermore, violations of human rights can occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the UDHR treaty or other international human rights or humanitarian law. In regard to human rights violations of United Nations laws, Article 39 of the United Nations Charterdesignates the UN Security Council (or an appointed authority) as the only tribunal that may determine UN human rights violations. Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, International Federation of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International. These organisations collect evidence and documentation of alleged human rights abuses and apply pressure to enforce human rights laws. Wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide, are breaches of International humanitarian law and represent the most serious of human rights violations. In efforts to eliminate violations of human rights, building awareness and protesting inhumane treatment has often led to calls for action and sometimes improved conditions. The UN Security Council has interceded with peace keeping forces, and other states and treaties (NATO) have intervened in situations to protect human rights. Substantive rights Right to life Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life. —Article 6.1 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights The right to life is the essential right that a human being has the right not to be killed by another human being. The concept of a right to life is central to debates on the issues of abortion, capital punishment, euthanasia, self defense andwar. According to many human rights activists, the death penalty violates this right. The United Nations has called on states retaining the death penalty to establish a moratorium on capital punishment with a view to its abolition. States which do not do so face considerable moral and political pressure. Freedom from torture Throughout history, torture has been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion. In addition to state-sponsored torture, individuals or groups may be motivated to inflict torture on others for similar reasons to those of a state; however, the motive for torture can also be for the sadistic gratification of the torturer, as in the Moors murders. Torture is prohibited under international law and the domestic laws of most countries in the 21st century. It is considered to be a violation of human rights, and is declared to be unacceptable by Article 5 of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Signatories of the Third Geneva Convention and Fourth Geneva Convention officially agree not to torture prisoners in armed conflicts. Torture is also prohibited by the United Nations Convention Against Torture, which has been ratified by 147 states. National and international legal prohibitions on torture derive from a consensus that torture and similar ill-treatment are immoral, as well as impractical. Despite these international conventions, organizations that monitor abuses of human rights (e.g. Amnesty International, the International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims) report widespread use condoned by states in many regions of the world. Amnesty International estimates that at least 81 world governments currently practice torture, some of them openly. Freedom from slavery Main article: slavery Freedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Despite this, the number of slaves today is higher than at any point in history,[68] remaining as high as 12 million to 27 million, Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt bondage incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations. Human trafficking is primarily for prostituting women and children into sex industries. Groups such as the American Anti-Slavery Group, Anti-Slavery International, Free the Slaves, the Anti-Slavery Society, and the Norwegian Anti-Slavery Society continue to campaign to rid the world of slavery. Right to a fair trial Main article: Right to a fair trial Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him. The right to a fair trial has been defined in numerous regional and international human rights instruments. It is one of the most extensive human rights and all international human rights instruments enshrine it in more than one article. The right to a fair trial is one of the most litigated human rights and substantial case law has been established on the interpretation of this human right. Despite variations in wording and placement of the various fair trial rights, international human rights instrument define the right to a fair trial in broadly the same terms. The aim of the right is to ensure the proper administration of justice. As a minimum the right to fair trial includes the following fair trial rights in civil and criminal proceedings: the right to be heard by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal the right to a public hearing the right to be heard within a reasonable time the right to counsel the right to interpretation Freedom of speech Main article: Freedom of speech Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without censorship. The term freedom of expression is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used. In practice, the right to freedom of speech is not absolute in any country and the right is commonly subject to limitations, such as on libel, slander, obscenity, incitement to commit a crime, etc. The right to freedom of expression is recognized as a human right under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Article 19 of the ICCPR states that â€Å"[e]veryone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference† and â€Å"everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, eit her orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice†. Freedom of thought, conscience and religion Main articles: Freedom of thought, Conscience, and Freedom of religion Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. —Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Freedom of thought, conscience and religion are closely related rights that protect the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to think and freely hold conscientious beliefs and to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any religion. The freedom to leave or discontinue membership in a religion or religious group—in religious terms called â€Å"apostasy†Ã¢â‚¬â€is also a fundamental part of religious freedom, covered by Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Human rights groups such as Amnesty International organises campaigns to protect those arrested and or incarcerated as a prisoner of conscience because of their conscientious beliefs, particularly concerning intellectual, political and artistic freedom of expression and association. In legislation, a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with the law (for example legalising surgical or pharmaceutical abortion) if it is incompatible with religious or conscientious beliefs. Rights debates Events and new possibilities can affect existing rights or require new ones. Advances of technology, medicine, and philosophy constantly challenge the status quo of human rights thinking. Future generations In 1997 UNESCO adopted the Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation. The Declaration opens with the words: Mindful of the will of the peoples, set out solemnly in the Charter of the United Nations, to ‘save succeeding generations from the scourge of war’ and to safeguard the values and principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and all other relevant instruments of international law. —Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generation Towards the Future Generation Article 1 of the declaration states â€Å"the present generations have the responsibility of ensuring that the needs and interests of present and future generations are fully safeguarded.† The preamble to the declaration states that â€Å"at this point in history, the very existence of humankind and its environment are threatened† and the declaration covers a variety of issues including protection of the e nvironment, the human genome, biodiversity, cultural heritage, peace, development, and education. The preamble recalls that the responsibilities of the present generations towards future generations has been referred to in various international instruments, including the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1992), the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (World Conference on Human Rights, 1993) and a number of UN General Assembly resolutions relating to the protection of the global climate for present and future generations adopted since 1990. Sexual orientation and gender identity See also: LGBT rights by country or territory Sexual orientation and gender identity rights relate to the expression of sexual orientation and gender identity based on the right to respect for private life and the right not to be discriminated against on the ground of â€Å"other status† as defined in various human rights conventions, such as article 17 and 26 in the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 8 and article 14 in the European Convention on Human Rights. Through the way many because of their religious beliefs claim that they support human rights in general while denying that LGBT rights are human rights, LGBT rights stand prominent in the very defense of the universal principle of the human rights. If human rights are understood in a way that makes it possible to exclude the basic rights of certain groups only because of certain religious and cultural prejudices, we find that the principle of universality is taken right out of the human rights, and human rights are trans formed to a set of rules only reflecting certain historically values. Homosexuality is illegal in 76 countries[citation needed], and is punishable by execution in seven countries. The criminalization of private, consensual, adult sexual relations, especially in countries where corporal or capital punishment is involved, is one of the primary concerns of LGBT human rights advocates. Other issues include: government recognition of same-sex relationships, LGBT adoption, sexual orientation and military service, immigration equality, anti-discrimination laws, hate crime laws regarding violence against LGBT people,sodomy laws, anti-lesbianism laws, and equal age of consent for same-sex activity. A global charter for sexual orientation and gender identity rights has been proposed in the form of the ‘Yogyakarta Principles’, a set of 29 principles whose authors say they apply International Human Rights Law statutes and precedent to situations relevant to LGBT people’s experience. The principles were presented at a United Nations event in New York on November 7, 2007, co-sponsored by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. The principles have been acknowledged with influencing the French proposed UN declaration on sexual orientation and gender identity, which focuses on ending violence, criminalization and capital punishment and does not include dialogue about same-sex marriage or right to start a family.[95][96] The proposal was supported by 67 of the then 192 member countries of the United Nations, including all EU member states and the United States. An alternative statement opposing the proposal was initiated by Syria and signed by 57 member nations, including all 27 nations of the Arab League as well as Iran and North Korea. Trade Although both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights emphasize the importance of a right to work, neither of these documents explicitly mention trade as a mechanism for ensuring this fundamental right. And yet trade plays a key role in providing jobs. Some experts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that when governments inhibit international trade they directly inhibit the right to work and the other indirect benefits, like the right to education, that increased work and investment help accrue. Others have argued that the ability to trade does not affect everyone equally—often groups like the rural poor, indigenous groups and women are less likely to access the benefits of increased trade. On the other hand, others think that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that trade, and therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right.[citation needed] Additionally, trying to fit too many concepts under the umbrella of what qualifies as a human right has the potential to dilute their importance. Finally, it is difficult to define a right to trade as either â€Å"fair† or â€Å"just† in that the current trade regime produces winners and losers but its reform is likely to produce (different) winners and losers. See also: The Recognition of Labour Standards within the World Trade Organisation and Investor state dispute settlement Water See also: Water politics and Right to water In November 2002, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a non-binding comment affirming that access to water was a human right: the human right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity. It is a prerequisite for the realization of other human rights. —United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights This principle was reaffirmed at the 3rd and 4th World Water Councils in 2003 and 2006. This marks a departure from the conclusions of the 2nd World Water Forum in The Hague in 2000, which stated that water was a commodity to be bought and sold, not a right. There are calls from many NGOs and politicians to enshrine access to water as a binding human right, and not as a commodity. According to the United Nations, nearly 900 million people lack access to clean water and more than 2.6 billion people lack access to basic sanitation. On July 28, 2010, the UN declared water and sanitation as human rights. By declaring safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right, the U.N. General Assembly made a step towards the Millennium Development Goal to ensure environmental sustainability, which in part aims to â€Å"halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation†. Reproductive rights Main article: reproductive rights Reproductive rights are rights relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The World Health Organisation defines reproductive rights as follows: Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence. — World Health Organisation Reproductive rights were first established as a subset of human rights at the United Nations 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. The sixteenth article of the resulting Proclamation of Teheran states, â€Å"Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children.† Reproductive rights may include some or all of the following rights: the right to legal or safe abortion, the right to control one’s reproductive functions, the right to quality reproductive healthcare, and the right to education and access in order to make reproductive choices free from coercion, discrimination, and violence. Reproductive rights may also be understood to include education about contraception and sexually transmitted infections, and freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception, protection from gender-based practices such asfemale genital cutting (FGC) and male genital mutilation (MGM). Information and communication technologies Main articles: Right to Internet access and Digital rights In October 2009, Finland’s Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that every person in Finland would have the legal right to Internet access. Since July 2010, the government has legally obligated telecommunications companies to offer broadband Internet access to every permanent residence and office. The connection must be â€Å"reasonably priced† and have a downstream rate of at least 1 Mbit/s. In March 2010, the BBC, having commissioned an opinion poll, reported that â€Å"almost four in five people around the world believe that access to the internet is a fundamental right.† The poll, conducted by the polling companyGlobeScan for the BBC World Service, collated the answers of 27,973 adult citizens across 26 countries to find that 79% of adults either strongly agreed or somewhat agreed with the statement: â€Å"access to the internet should be a fundamental right of all people†. Relationship with other topics Human rights and the environment There are two basic conceptions of environmental human rights in the current human rights system. The first is that the right to a healthy or adequate environment is itself a human right (as seen in both Article 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and Article 11 of the San Salvador Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights). The second conception is the idea that environmental human rights can be derived from other human rights, usually – the right to life, the right to health, the right to private family life and the right to property (among many others). This second theory enjoys much more widespread use in human rights courts around the world, as those rights are contained in many human rights documents. The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Such as the conflict between right to decide number of offspring and the common need for a healthy environment, as noted in the tragedy of the commons. In the area of environmental rights, the responsibilities of multinational corporations, so far relatively unaddressed by human rights legislation, is of paramount consideration.[citation needed] Environmental Rights revolve largely around the idea of a right to a livable environment both for the present and the future generations. National security See also: National security and Anti-terrorism legislation With the exception of non-derogable human rights (international conventions class the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws as non-derogable),[120] the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency – although the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a temporary measure. —United Nations. The Resource Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as peremptory norms or jus cogens. Such United Nations Charter obligations are binding on all states and cannot be modified by treaty. Examples of national security being used to justify human rights violations include the Japanese American internment during World War II, Stalin’s Great Purge, and the modern-day abuses of terror suspects rights by some countries, often in the name of the War on Terror.

My Grandmother’s Passing

Each one of us has experienced something In our lives that has left us devastated, for me It was my Grandmothers passing. She was the person who cared for me part- time as a young child and became my sole guardian when I was nine years old, after it was found I was being sexually abused by my uncle on my mothers' side of the family. She became a person who made me smile, and helped me through rough times as a teenager.She taught me how to read, right from wrong, and encouraged me to do great things despite my Dyslexia and Hearing Loss, so when I had learned he had less than a year to live I was heartbroken, angry, and determined to provide her with as much support as I possibly could. In November of 201 2 Grandma fell while getting ready for me to pick her up for doctor's appointment. It was the first sign something was wrong with her. I found her an hour after it happened. She was too weak to get up and was to disorient to recall who I was.She kept referring to me as Janice her lat e daughter who died when she was only six. It took until January for a diagnosis to be found. She had MEDS that had progressed to ML a type of leukemia, with her being In such a ad shape and weak the doctors said it would be inhumane for us to try Chemotherapy, and it was so far progressed it wouldn't extend her life by much, and what life she had should be cherished now Instead of sitting and feeling Ill by medication to only prolong her life by feeling Ill and miserable. I was terrified of losing my Grandma, what if could not make it on my own in the world?I felt I still needed her guidance and love; that I was unable live in a world that terrified me so much, it's hard to admit you're afraid of so much when you're twenty-six years old. The anger ate at me, and I often wondered how I could go about my day with out feeling anger for having her taken away from me, she was eighty-six years old, and surely she could live another 10 years. I was upset and found myself angry with my hal f-sister who had four beautiful children, who weren't even related by blood to my grandma, The woman who took such good care of me as a child was never shown just how much she meant to me.She knew nearly all my secrets and held on to them so tightly. Nevertheless, I felt angry, depressed, and was even more determined to make sure her that leading up to her death, I would dedicate all my time to making sure she new how much she meant to me. She spent her first few months after being diagnosed In a nursing home. She begged and pleaded with my dad to take her home; she missed her books and her 1 OFF wasn't eating, and unable to recognize, or think clearly some of the time. I think it was hard on my Dad to see his mom dying.It was hard on all of us, but to me she was my mother now too, and rescued me from an awful past. I made the decision to bring her home, back to her apartment where I was living alone surrounded by all re things. I pleaded with my dad for him to release her into my c are, and after several weeks of trying the day finally came. She was heading home; she was thrilled, and all the while I couldn't stop to think of what was to come. Taking care of someone who is terminal is a big choice and responsibility.I made the choice because she took care of me, and I felt she shouldn't spend her last months surrounded by strangers who neglected her. Often I would be at the nursing home, and find her sitting in soiled sheets, needing personal assistance with grooming, and thirsty with an empty cup sitting beside her bed. I came daily, several times a day, only to find the same things even when I talked to staff at the nursing home. She was never bothered with the neglect, even when she was lucid she would shrug her shoulders and simply state they were busy.When I asked if there way anything she liked it was simple things, someone to paint her nails bright red, her favorite color, maybe someone to sit and talk to her or simply watch golf, things that were famil iar to her. We ignored the elephant in the room, the thought her dying, I wouldn't allow myself to focus on it. I made sure that ever moment I spent with her I filled with memories, we talked about secrets, she hardly remembered me, but she still remembered all her secrets. I learned so much about her life as a wild child running off to marry a man in the US Military.How her family forbid it being they were immigrants right before WI. So much history was lost along with my grandmother's death. My grandma was of Germanic decent and spoke English, Japanese, American Sign Language, and German all fluently by the time of her death. Her death didn't come as a shock by any means; it did not sneak up on me. I knew that night she would be gone by morning, and so did she. It was Monday night September 17, 2012 that we were watching TV together in her room. She could no longer walk; she went from bibs to 91 lbs in 9 months.She looked over at me and said, â€Å"I'm going to die tonight. I can feel it, Janice. † I didn't try to comfort her, or tell her no she will be fine. I knew Just as well as she did that her body was too weak. She had chose to not have and life sustaining measures taken, I was not allowed to perform CPRM, she would not be on oxygen, and she would not have a gastric feeding be or nasal-gastric feeding tube. She did not have any food in probably two days, when you are dying your body shuts down slowly, and you require less, and don't feel hunger.I simply responded back with, â€Å"l know Grandma, do you want me to stay in your room tonight with you? † For which she simply stated it was time for me to go to bed. She died early the next morning in her sleep September 18, 2012 approximately 4:AMA. I had always teased her that if she was going to die she better do it with a smile on her face, and when I found her she seemed so peacefully asleep with a mark placed on her face. Her death affected me in so many ways.I won't ever forget what it wa s like to care for her and be her hospice nurse, friend, and family. I did it on my own. The worst fear. I learned I had strength and courage, that I could face things that ultimately scared me to my core. She had always wanted me to go to college and become a nurse, and reminded me that often when she recalled who I was. I know that I have the emotional strength to become a nurse, but I rather teach. We always had English in common; she would have me practice spelling, writing, punctuation, ND even grammar with her.She said if I could not hear the world completely, or ever learn to speak my mind through my slight autism, then I need to be able to write it, and write it well. My ability to convey myself in English both written, and orally where her main goal when raising me, and I hope that for some other person who has struggled so hard in the beginning of their life I can help them to convey their emotions and thoughts as well, because with out her teaching me to read, write, and understand love I wouldn't have become the selfless person I am today.

Music History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Music History - Essay Example This was not the first effort at change since before the Council of Trent ever convened to discuss music in 1562; the Catholic Church had spoken out against an alleged maltreatment of music used in the mass. In 1503, the manipulation of the beliefs and using non-liturgical songs was looked into. The representatives at the Council were a connection in the long sequence of church clergy who had pressed for a reform of the musical liturgy. The council reforms included prohibiting professional musicians, banishing polyphonic singing and omitting the use of an organ. Council of Trent was attempting to reinstate the sense of holiness to the church setting as well as what was significant for the mass (Fellerer, 1). Pope Marcellus was a forthright critic of excessively overstated polyphony and its disruption from the meaning of the spoken liturgy and the release of holy texts. He made his mass simple in its refined harmonies and not permitting the music to cover the words being sung. By this, he responded to the council of Trent’s concerns. The sections of the Catholic Mass include Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Angus Dei. It can be sung with influential accompaniment up to and together with a full orchestra or a cappella. The Pope Marcellus Mass was written for six parts a cappella. The parts do not sing the same melody in harmony, thus it is polyphonic. The various voices move separately and at the same time, they form a balanced accord making Palestrina’s mastery of music evident (Josh and Cristi.net,

Beneficiary of the Financial Liberalization Essay

Beneficiary of the Financial Liberalization - Essay Example Financial liberalization involves reduction of regulations and involvement of regulatory agencies in the financial system of a given country or region. It refers to the ‘deregulation of domestic financial markets and the liberalization of the capital account’ (Ranciere, Tornell & Westermann, n.d, p.1). The financial system broadly refers to the lending system in a given country and includes the players like banking institutions, the central bank, the treasury in a country, or the money markets authorities. Financial liberalizations will have varying effects on the players in different industries at the national, regional, or international levels. While some economies may suffer the negative consequences of financial liberalizations, other players in the economy will benefit from the initiative. This paper focuses on the likely beneficiary/beneficiaries of financial liberalization. Some financial reforms Financial liberalization measures can comprise both internal regulat ions (imposed by the central banks within a country) and external regulations effected by the regional and international agencies or the regulatory agencies in foreign countries. Internal FL measures are many. ... ludes a state’s withdrawal from involvement in financial intermediation (Ghosh, 2005), which is characterized by the transformation of development banks into regular financial institutions and privatization of publicly owned banking system. Financial liberalization also involves creating a relaxed environment for investors and firms to participate in the stock market through dilution of the listing conditions as well as relaxed regulation on the financial instruments to be used or acquired within a given financial system (Ghosh, 2005). A liberalized economy will also be characterized by better access to financial sources. Thus, internal financial liberalization also includes improving access to funds by the financial agents and firms and removing regulations on the kind of investments that can be made by these financial agents (Ghosh, 2005). External financial liberalization may include steps like allowing foreigners to own domestic financial assets, allowing domestic resident s to own foreign financial assets, or allowing free trade of foreign currency asset within the domestic economy (Ghosh, 2005). Who gains from financial liberalisation? Financial liberalization has positive and negative impacts on the economic development in a given country. While it can promote financial deepening and increased economic growth of a country, it can also lead to financial crisis in other countries resulting from increased macroeconomic volatility and excessive risk taking (Ranciere, Tornell, & Westermann, N.d). Financial repression, caused by governments’ interventions in the financial sector, leads to low economic growth and poor allocation efficiency in countries with negative interest rates and vice versa for positive interest rates (Caprio, Honohan & Stiglitz, 2006, p.5).

Preperation for Transferring 25 Employees to France for Business Research Paper

Preperation for Transferring 25 Employees to France for Business - Research Paper Example Per the request made to determine the current political, business, and economic conditions in France, this research report gives a detailed account of the same in light of its importance to the ability of the employees to function in a new culture. The request necessitated a survey of the socio-cultural environment in France, including details of communication protocols and etiquette, French social life, and their business etiquette. These three factors will have a significant effect on the ability of your employees to be productive in France. Communication is especially important given that the French consider good communication skills as a sign of education and intelligence. For this reason, I investigated how written, verbal, and non-verbal practices can affect daily life, social interaction, and business operation. My preliminary recommendation is that the transfer of employees is feasible, particularly because your company already has some presence in the French market. If you d o decide to go act on the recommendations and transfer the employees, the research findings and recommendations cover possible scenarios and eventualities. It is my hope that the research report will form part of your guidelines in preparing your employees for the challenging but exciting socio-cultural changes and new business practices. V/r Shondrea A. James Executive Summary This research report sets out to attain three major objectives; to determine the economic situation in France, to find out the best business practices that employees moving to France would need to adhere to, and to identify opportunities and risks that would come with expanding the company in France. The paper also discusses the economic situation in France, French labor laws, and the country’s socio-cultural environment with information on these collected via primary and secondary means. As a senior member of the European Union, France is one of Europe’s and the world’s leading economies . The government maintains strong presence in some industries like public transport, power, and defense, which means that the electronics industry will have to make with some government regulation. The research study found that the labor costs in France have been increasing steadily over the past ten years, while their tax rates are similar to those of other countries with similar GDP to theirs. France is made up of a Latin and Celtic majority with several minority communities including Basque and North Africa. When communicating in France, it is important to note that verbal, non-verbal, and written communication is very important and have specific rules. With regards to their social life, the French value their food, take care of their families, take parenting seriously, and are generally private people with social stratification. Finally, business etiquette is very important with appointments being mandatory and their cancellation or delay requiring communication. The electronics industry is highly competitive in France with examples of the top brands including Mdp Finance, Navimo Group, Ten Power Industry Co., Laboratoire Biopharne, and Sealing Package Industrial. While the competition is tough, the French electronics indus

Usefulness of Comfort Theory Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Usefulness of Comfort Theory - Research Paper Example Further, the paper correlates the four contexts of comfort and integrates this into the larger comfort concept of the model. Other efforts have also been suggested on the relevance and applicability of the theory to the modern nursing practice, while pointing out limitation of the theory and offering suggestions for wider health care application of the theory. This paper sums up the discussions by highlighting the focus of comfort theory and relating it to its proposed modification so that it can enhance health care provision to larger healthcare framework and not just on nursing practitioners. According to Florence Nightingale, the primary concept of nursing is to place a patient in the best possible conditions for nature to act upon them. Virginia Henderson also defines nursing as the unique function of assisting individuals, either well or ill, in performing activities that contribute to enhance health, recovery, or peaceful death that the individual would perform without assistance if they had adequate will, strength, and knowledge. (Kolcaba, 2003) Moreover, these assistive functions are performed in a manner that enables the individual to gain rapid independence. According to research and studies in the past, majority of patients attest to provision of care with kindness by most nurses. The relationship between nursing care and comfor t dates back to the early 1900s with the central focus on moral imperative. By 1903s, specialists in the nursing field perceived comfort as a strategy for attaining aspects of nursing care. By 1960s, comfort was a minor goal in nursing care, as physical aspects were dominant while emotional comfort was gaining importance. In 1990, Kolcaba’s Comfort Theory was fully dominant, with emphasis on childbirth pain, pain management, and palliative care and end of life (Kolcaba, 2003). Conditions in the nursing care sector such as loss and suffering of patients with complex medical care, pain scores of 10/10 even with increase in medication, and personal frustration and inability to change the situation contributed to the adoption of comfort as the foundation of nursing care. There exists universal consensus among the health practitioners that nurses’ role entirely should focus on caring for the patients and making them feel comfortable. Comfort for patient’s forms the d iscussions that Katherine Kolcaba anchors her discussions on Comfort Theory of Nursing. This theory sets out new paradigms in the nursing sector providing new insights into nursing as a profession and expectation of patients when being cared for by nurses. The Comfort Theory: Background From a bibliographical perspective, Kolcaba traces her childhood days to Ohio where she had always wanted to pursue nursing. To actualize her dreams, she took up a volunteering nursing job at Candy stripper at tender age of 14 to gain insights into the nursing profession. Her nursing education traces back to St. Luke’s Hospital School of Nursing and Case Western Reserve University being the first Registered nurse for a Master’s degree with special interest in gerontology in 1975. It is during her post graduate studies

Critical Reading Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Critical Reading Reflection - Essay Example The author starts by stating that â€Å"this is a hopeful book about those who fail.† (Rose, M., 2005 p. xi) and provides an account of the education system in America, so the book can be said to be a book about the hope the author holds for people who may be struggling with the American educational system. He goes on to stipulate that the low level of literacy skills in remedial students is not as a result of lack of intelligence but is rather due to insufficient economic and social conditions to support these students, as well as a history of poor education. The author believes that educators should have more confidence in the literacy abilities of such students and that there must be greater equality as regards educational opportunities in America. This book details the story of how the author learned to read, write and think critically, and how he came to start teaching others to also be able to read, write and think in a critical way. This book can be divided into two sec tions. The first section discusses the author’s journey as a student, and as a teacher. In this first section Rose learns to read, analyze and write, while engaging critically with text, and making use of language in a correct manner. In the second section, Rose learned how to teach to others these things he had learned as a student. The main connection between these sections is the connection that was made by the author himself about his own experiences. In the book, one can also feel the effect that the author’s teachers had on him. The teachers (Mr.Jonhson, Mr.Macfarland and Dr.Carothers) all affected the author’s experience and influenced his perspective about the issue of teaching. In the book, the author illustrates some examples of the perceived cultural and language barriers that students have to deal with from day to day, and discusses his experiences with students, including high school graduates with reading or writing difficulties. Due to the reading and writing difficulties faced by these students, they are usually branded as remedial students and therefore placed in special classes, regardless of the real causes of their inability to read and write at the predetermined level. These students may go through their school years, and even later into their adult lives bearing this stigma. In the first chapter, rose outlines the main issues about the American educational system, and his prognoses on these issues relegate the reasoning behind his opinions as stated in the book. The history and the policies that led to the ‘back to basics movement’ are also discussed, and it seems that educators and administrators in America believed that American students are a largely illiterate and insufficient group. Although the author does not directly challenge the necessity of examining the social and economic conditions in the educational system, he argues against â€Å"framing our indictments in terms of decline, a harsh, laced -with-doom assault, as insisting that our current educational standards do not meet or exceed the supposed perfection of past standards we lose the historical and social realities of American education† (Rose, M., 2005 p. 7). The author also argues against labelling some students as remedial students or punishing those that do not measure up to a false reality of success and advocates a better understanding of the cultural and social conditions that students face. Rose explains that the American society as a whole clings to

Managed care contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Managed care contracts - Essay Example Managed care is sometimes used as a general term for the activity of organizing doctors, hospitals, and other providers into groups in order to enhance the quality and cost-effectiveness of health care. Managed Care Organizations (MCO) include HMO, PPO, POS, EPO, PHO, IDS, AHP, IPA, etc. Usually when one speaks of a managed care organization, one is speaking of the entity that manages risk, contracts with providers, is paid by employers or patient groups, or handles claims processing. Managed care has effectively formed a "go-between", brokerage or 3rd party arrangement by existing as the gatekeeper between payers and providers and patients. The term managed care is often misunderstood, as it refers to numerous aspects of healthcare management, payment and organization. It is best to ask the speaker to clarify what he or she means when using the term "managed care". In the purest sense, all people working in healthcare and medical insurance can be thought of as "managing care." Any s ystem of health payment or delivery arrangements where the plan attempts to control or coordinate use of health services by its enrolled members in order to contain health expenditures, improve quality, or both. Arrangements often involve a defined delivery system of providers with some form of contractual arrangement with the plan. See Health Maintenance Organization, Independent Practice Association, Preferred Provider Organization (Pohley 2008). Systems and techniques used to control the use of health care services. Includes a review of medical necessity, incentives to use certain providers, and case management. The body of clinical, financial and organizational activities designed to ensure the provision of appropriate health care services in a cost-efficient manner. Managed care techniques are most often practiced by organizations and professionals that assume risk for a

HEALTH LAW AND ETHICS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

HEALTH LAW AND ETHICS - Essay Example ve of creating expertise and providing information and tools, which are necessary in preventing diseases and injuries, promoting health and preparing for disease outbreaks. Moreover, as an individual provider, CDC conducts ethical research through sound science, which ensures that public health goals are, met (Bascetta 12). The organizational and community effects of CDC are based on collaborating with various partners on both national and international levels. By collaborating with various partners, CDC’s aims at monitoring public health through; conducting research to prevent the spread of new health problems, developing and supporting sound and ethical, public health policies, implementing health prevention strategies and promoting healthy behaviors. The information that is attained through research by CDC is to benefit the community, as opposed to the organization. In other words, CDC has prioritized the community’s public health, instead of prioritizing its economic gains. Additionally, CDC’s organizational and community effects, entail deriving public health decisions from high quality scientific data. In essence, CDC’s research data are objective and ethical (Bascetta

Undying Message Essay Example for Free

Undying Message Essay â€Å"I have asked myself many times: Is the Filipino worth suffering, or even dying, for? Is he not a coward who would readily yield to any colonizer, be he foreign or homegrown? Is a Filipino more comfortable under an authoritarian leader because he does not want to be burdened with the freedom of choice? Is he unprepared, or worse, ill-suited for presidential or parliamentary democracy? I have carefully weighed the virtues and the faults of the Filipino and I have come to the conclusion that he is worth dying for because he is the nation’s greatest untapped resource. † *Ninoy delivered before the Asia Society on August 4, 1980 in New York City. It’s been years and yet Benigno â€Å"Ninoy† Aquino Jr. is still remembered from the shirts and posters that we see everywhere. This is only a sign that he became a part of every Filipino’s identity. However it is not only his so called heroism and legacy that has been left and looked upon, the famous statement â€Å"Filipinos are worth dying for† is also celebrated and even put in the old 500 peso bill with his famous portrait. But why did his statement moved us, Filipinos? Why is it necessary for him to say that we are worth dying for? â€Å"Worth dying for†: the phrase is heavily equipped with words that can be controversial. How do we say something is worthy and not only worthy of anything but worthy of dying? Are we that special for him to say that? Yes, for him, it is yes. Going back decades ago, we were under the martial law led by Ferdinand Marcos, the archenemy of Ninoy. Everybody before looked upon Ninoy for he was the only political actor that readily questioned Marcos and therefore took the hearts of the people. And with his death, the people’s cry for democracy was only empowered to the point that everybody was swayed by his ill fate. Scores of students, teachers, and workers alike make use of his statement either to fight their rights, use it academically, and/or to give inspiration to the public. That’s how it made impact on our way of living. We tend to use famous words from famous people because we think it will make our convictions heavier. Now this statement became a legend not only as a symbol before but also a symbol of fighting. It will be and always be reminding us that we are worth dying for and because of that we believe that we should be the bosses of the government and they should look upon us as their greatest resource for our own development.

Impact of Donald Trump on the East and West

Impact of Donald Trump on the East and West The Weakening West: Opportunities for the East The West in the Era of Trump As the first quarter of the 21st century unfolds, there are many signs that the West, led by the United States of America, is struggling to maintain it’s dominant influence in the world. After the end of World War II, in 1945, the United States of America played a central role in encouraging the economic and governmental cooperation between countries of Western Europe, Canada and itself. As time moved on, this union of peace grew to incorporate other countries, and through it all, the United States has been the heart of the system. The system created has been truly unique with respect to the shared values, common goals, economic successes and mutual respect shared between these countries. However, this new, and often termed liberal world order, which has been defined, dominated and nurtured by the United States, continues, in recent years, to be challenged in a way that increases the likelihood that the West will be weakened as the dominant power in the unfolding 21st century. Factors within and external to the West will play key roles in the weakening of its hold.   First, the strength and unity of the United States itself, as the leader and defender of the liberal order, is now in crisis. This crisis of unity and rise in populism now extends beyond the borders of the United States to other key nations of the western world, further eroding the very values, policies and institutions that define the West. Second, the presence of weakened, unpredictable and misguided leadership in the United States is having a profoundly negative impact on the future of the United States as the leader of the West. And finally, China in the East, sits poised to challenge what is already a weakened international order. It is a time of great challenge for the West and it appears that the liberal world order, as known today, will be weakened in the coming decades.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The last couple of years have given us cause to observe that important challenges in foreign policies seem to be coming more from within the countries themselves than from between the countries in the West.[1] In 2016, two powerful nations that have played key roles in the creation of the liberal order, the United States and the United Kingdom, appear to have turned away from this ideal. The rise of populism has been exemplified by the election of President Trump in the USA and the exit of the UK from the European Union, or Brexit. Populism is best described as a commitment to strong leaders and a disdain for powerful institutions and limits on sovereignty.[2] It suggests a suspicion and hostility aimed at elites, mainstream politics and well- established institutions.[3] Of course many of those very institutions are at the heart of the liberal world order such as the United Nations, the European Union, the World Trade Organization, and others. Through these institutions we have enjoyed peace, safety, and economic stability.   Under Donald Trump, a populist leader, he has convinced many that he is there for the people, that he will save them and that he eschews the important institutions as unnecessary, expensive and unhelpful to the people. The very middle class that the liberal world order has helped to create are now turning against it. The working class resent the elite and rich and believe that they gain from international institutions and gain favor with higher ups in government.   â€Å"America first† was a slogan that has become the new reality of the USA. In the case of Brexit, the British government under the leadership of David Cameron held a referendum on whether or not Britain should leave the European Union. To the shock of the world a majority voted to leave. As with the pro-Trump supporters, the pro-Brexit supporters believed that such dramatic change, in this case leaving the EU, was essential to restore the very identity of the country and its people. The â€Å"Take Control† slogan appears to have convinced many. It appears that the populist movement, in which a large segment of the poor and working-class population becomes anti-establishment and anti-elite has voted against the mainstream political leanings, once again. The very Union that has brought us peace for the last 70 years is now under growing strain.[4] The impact of leaving the European Union remains to be seen for Britain itself, but this action most certainly weakens the very unified Europe that we have all counted on as a powerful component of the liberal world order of the West. With the recognition of the United States as the historical nurturer and leader of the West it is logical to expect that the President of the United States would espouse principles of mutual respect and cooperation with the other countries of the West, in addition to shared beliefs and goals. With the election of Donald Trump the very leadership of the country, and of it’s future and of the West is threatened. Trump appears to see the United States cooperation with the greater West as somehow costing the country more than it is benefitting it. Two significant decisions by Trump since coming into office illustrate just how seriously he seeks to appeal to his domestic base, regardless of its impact beyond the country’s borders. Trump recently announced a decision to withdraw the United States from the Paris Climate Agreement. In 2015, 195 countries attending the Paris Climate Conference adopted the first ever universal global climate deal. The main goal of the agreement is to keep global average temperatures from rising 2 degrees by the end of the century. Beyond 2 degrees promises catastrophic weather changes threatening man’s very survival. For the U.S. the pledge they made was to reduce 26 to 28 percent greenhouse gas reductions by 2026. The agreement is to create a culture of accountability and hopefully some peer pressure between countries will be at work. President Trump’s decision to withdraw has many believing, including Former Energy Secretary and US negotiator for the Paris Climate Agreement, Ernest Moniz, that his decision is more about politics, even about theatre, than it is anything to do with climate.[5] Again, he is playing to his domestic base at home, focused on the United States, with little regard for other countries, or for the world at large. Without the United States there is no doubt that the Agreement will be weakened, not to mention the remarkable coalition of all but two countries, who worked so hard to come to such a remarkable agreement. On the first day of President Trump’s presidency he also pulled the United States out of the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement. This is a trade agreement between twelve countries, responsible for 40% of the world’s trade, that border the Pacific Ocean. They signed up to this agreement in 2016.  Ã‚   The agreement was ultimately aimed at helping these countries to encourage trade between them and to deepen their economic ties. It is believed that this deal, once ratified, would have supported greatly the United States’ position in the Asia-Pacific region, where China’s influence is being felt more and more.[6] Trump called it a â€Å"horrible deal† when on the campaign trail and claimed that it aims to benefit big business and other countries and that, in the process, jobs in the United States would be threatened. While the USA now appears focused on its domestic interests, far from it’s previous role as the leader of the West, China now sits poised to replace the West as the new world leader. Gideon Rachman, in his new book Easternization writes of a transformed Asia. In his words, â€Å"the West’s centuries-long domination of world affairs is now coming to a close.†[7] China, a country of enormous population and administrative determination, is on the move to take advantage of the refocusing of the recent United States administrative decisions and to assume control as the Eastern leader. In 2014 China became the worlds largest economy.[8] A fast expanding military   speaks to the confidence the leaders have in it’s own strength with respect to the United States and its own neighbors. China’s President Xi Jinping dedicates far more time visiting the People’s Liberation Army headquarters than his predecessors and clearly has as a mandate to develop new military policies and bolster Chinese Communist Party propaganda.[9] China is claiming ownership of waters claimed by other eastern countries and is building artificial islands and sending airplanes and ships to challenge fishing boundaries and oil resources. Many ongoing decisions of the United States administration bear evidence of their apparent willingness to forfeit power and leadership to China, in exchange for building their internal appeal to the general populous. Removing itself from the Paris Climate Agreement has left China the opportunity now to move forward with leadership in this area and to pledge new partnerships with members of the Agreement. Likewise, a few weeks after the United States removed itself from the Trans-Pacific Partnership China sent high-ranking diplomats to meet with the remaining members of the partnership to discuss forming a new regional trade partnership with China, rather than the United States, as a member.[10] Just this week an article appears in Foreign Affairs in which Casarini writes about â€Å"A New Era for EU-China Relations?-How They Are Forging Ahead Without the United States†. He details several ways in which China is recently working with the EU. Beijing is trying to charm Europe through investments. Europe is now the top destination for Chinese foreign investments, surpassing the United States. Both China and the EU have pledged to continue efforts to reduce pollution and combat rising sea levels even, without the United States. Casarini believes it is likely that the EU and China will foster ties on security and defence as well. However, he points out quickly that â€Å"A China-EU alliance would be more a marriage of convenience than a solid partnership—one that is facilitated by Brexit and that revolves around a shared antagonism for Trump.† The future of the West, with the United States in a leadership role, faces major threats and, on it’s current trajectory, stands to weaken as the 21st century unfolds. With the President of the United States working to remove his country from agreements focused on the collective welfare of many countries, in favor of pleasing his own voter base, combined with the rise of populist governments within the West, the future does not look hopeful. With the West weakened and lacking leadership, the East is well poised and stepping forward to strengthen it’s leadership on many fronts, including areas of economics, security and climate. It may be that China will forge alliances with members of the existing West, but one thing is certain, the West as it has been known until recently, will not exist and the future remains unclear.   Endnotes [1] Jeff D. Colgan, Robert O. Keohane, â€Å"The Liberal Order Is Rigged: Fix It Now or Watch It Wither,† Foreign Affairs, (May & June 2017), 36. [2] Ibid. [3] Fareed Zakaria, â€Å"Populism on the March: Why the West Is in Trouble,† Foreign Affairs, (November & December 2016). [4] Amanda. Taub, â€Å"Brexit, Explained: 7 Questions About What It Means and Why It Matters,† The New York Times, 20 June 2016. [5] Ernest Moniz, interview by Fareed Zakaria, Cable News Network, June 4, 2017. [6] â€Å"TPP: What is it and why does it matter?† British Broadcasting Corporation, January 23, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/business-32498715 (accessed June 9, 2017). [7] Gideon Rachman, Easternization: Asia’s Rise and America’s Decline from Obama to Trump and Beyond (New York: Other Press, 2016). [8] Jessica T. Mathews, â€Å"Can China Replace the West?† The New York Review of Books, (11 May 2017). [9] Ibid. [10] Ibid. Bibliography Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. New York, NY: Crown Business, 2013. Brinton, Crane, John B. Christopher, and Robert Lee Wolff. Civilization in the West. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964. Brà ¶ning, Michael. The Rise of Populism in Europe: Can the Center Hold? Foreign Affairs, 3 June 2016. Casarini, N. A New Era for EU-China Relations? Foreign Affairs, 6 June 2017. Colgan, Jeff D., and Keohane, Robert O. The Liberal Order Is Rigged: Fix It Now or Watch It Wither, Foreign Affairs, May & June 2017. CrashCourse. â€Å"The Rise of the West and Historical Methodology: Crash Course World History #212†. Filmed [October 2014]. YouTube Video, 11:53. Posted [October 2014]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nosJVTuCHFk. Diamond, Jared M. Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Penguin Books, 2011. Dollar, David. Brexit Aftermath: The Wests Decline and Chinas Rise, Brookings Institution, 27 June 2016. Durden, Tyler. The BBC Looks At How Western Civilisation Could Collapse. Zero Hedge, 19 April 2017. Feigenbaum, Evan A. China and the World, Foreign Affairs, Jan. & Feb. 2017. Ferguson, Niall. Civilization: the West and the rest. New York: Penguin Books, 2012. Hunter, Erica C. D. First civilizations. New York: Facts on File, 1994. Ikenberry, John. The Rise of China and the Future of the West | Foreign Affairs. Home | Foreign Affairs. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/63042/g-john-ikenberry/the-rise-of-china-and-the-future-of-the-west. Mathews, Jessica T. Can China Replace the West? The New York Review of Books. 11 May 2017. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2017/05/11/easternization-can-china-replace-the-west/. Moniz, Ernest. Cable News Network. By Fareed Zakaria. June 4, 2017. Niblett, Robin. Liberalism in Retreat: The Demise of a Dream, Foreign Affairs, Jan. & Feb. 2017. Nye, Joseph S. Will the Liberal Order Survive, Foreign Affairs, Jan. & Feb. 2017. Rachman, Gideon. Easternization: Asias Rise and Americas Decline from Obama to Trump and Beyond. New York: Other Press, 2016. Rapoza, Kenneth. Communist China Is Now the Leader Of The Free Trade World, Forbes, 24 January 2017. Rapoza, Kenneth. The Future: Chinas Rise, Americas Decline, Forbes, 26 March 2017. Rose, Gideon. Out of Order? Foreign Affairs, Jan. & Feb. 2017. Rose, Gideon. The Power of Populism: Whats Inside, Foreign Affairs, Nov. & Dec. 2016. Savic, Bob. Behind China and Russias Special Relationship,† The Diplomat, 7 December 2016. Svidà ©n, Ove. The East Wind will Prevail Over the West Wind. Peace Philosophers Blog (web log), 4 January 2017. http://www.peace.se/blog/2017/01/04/mao-zedong-the-east-wind-will-prevail-over-the-west-wind/. Taub, A. Brexit, Explained: 7 Questions About What It Means and Why It Matters. The New York Times, 20 June 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/21/world/europe/brexit-britain-eu-explained.html?_r=0. TPP: What is it and why does it matter? British Broadcasting Corporation. January 23, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/business-32498715 (accessed June 9, 2017). Zakaria, Fareed. Populism on the March: Why the West Is in Trouble, Foreign Affairs, Nov. & Dec. 2016.

The Problem of Global Warming Essay -- essays research papers

Global Warming is the increase of temperature on Earth which is caused by human activities and will have very serious consequences for life on Earth if humans don't start to do something about it now. Global Warming is caused when the Greenhouse Gases combines with the atmosphere and traps heat. It is strongly related to pre-human and pre- industrial global warming, it is also weakly related to depletion of ozone layer, which was caused by the CFC (Chlorofluorocarbons) gas. The effects of global warming on the environment are dangerous, such as: rising of sea level because polar caps melt, changes in the pattern of precipitation, floods, droughts, heat waves, hurricanes and tornadoes. These effects would take away life and destroy houses or anything else human made. The effects of global warming on humans are also dangerous, such as: affecting human health by affecting ecosystem and productivity, air quality, diseases and agricultural production. We could prevent all of these from happening by using alternative sources, for example: wind, solar, nuclear and water power. With the help of modern technologies, we could increase the Earth?s reflectivity and keep it cool. The most important thing is to keep population under control and recycle. Global Warming is the process where in the Earth is getting warmer and the atmosphere is getting thicker because the amount of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) is increasing. Greenhouse Gases includes carbon dioxide, methane gas, nitrous oxide, water vapor and CFC (chlorofluorocarbons). These gases (except CFC) are naturally there in the atmosphere, but too much of them traps too much heat. Even though carbon dioxide is considered to be the biggest cause of global w... ...ees release lots of carbon dioxide as they are burnt. Trees should be replaced as they are chopped down. The easiest thing to start with is recycling because we could start doing it at home, office and school. Recycling paper means we reduce the need for cutting down trees for new paper and if all people started to use things carefully and recycling things, the reduction of resources need will occur. This will have positive effects and reduce Global Warming. Global Warming is a very serious problem that?s happening now to our Earth. We should do something to prevent this and become more serious before it harms us later on. There have been signs of global warming and the record of highest temperature mostly occurred on the last few years. If everybody in the world starts to do something small, the effect will be big. So, must start whenever we can.

Elizabeth Barrett Brownings Biography Essays -- Biography Biographies

Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Biography Throughout the course of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s life, poetry played the hand of fate. All of the major events that took place in her life seem to coincide with her poetry. Poetry made her famous. It gave her solace, and comfort, somewhere to drown her sorrow. It introduced her to her husband, and (indirectly) divorced her from her father. Poetry was not only a part of her life, but an integral part of her soul. Creative Beginnings It all began in Gosforth Church, with the marriage of Mary Graham Clarke, and Robert Moulton. Soon after their marriage, Edward Moulton inherited his family’s sugar plantations in Jamaica, and took on the name Barrett. Their first daughter was born on March 6, 1806 in Coxhoe Hall, located in Durham, England. She was christened Elizabeth Barrett. She was to be the first of twelve siblings: Edward, Henrietta, Arabella, Samuel, Charles, George, Henry, Alfred, Septimus, Octavius, and Mary. (Mary died at the age of three.) Out of the twelve, Elizabeth Barrett was closest to her younger brother Edward, affectionately dubbing him â€Å"bro.† He in turn, responded by calling her â€Å"ba.† They all resided happily at â€Å"Hope End near Ledbury in Herefordshire, where Edward Barrett had built himself a country house with Moorish windows and turrets† (World Authors 77). Elizabeth Barrett’s education began at the age of eight when she first started receiving lessons from her tutor. It soon became obvious that Barrett was a proficient learner. She could read Homer in the original before she turned nine years old, and when she no longer had a tutor, she taught herself by studying Edward’s lessons, and by reading incessantly. But, more importantly, she developed a passion ... ...e Barretts of Wimpole Street. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1930. â€Å"Elizabeth Barrett Browning†. The Bloomsbury Guide to Women’s Literature. 1992. Bolton, Sarah K. Lives of Girls who Become Famous. New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell company publishers, 1886 â€Å"Elizabeth Barrett Browning†. Cyclopedia of World Authors. 3rd ed. 1997. â€Å"Elizabeth Barrett Browning.† The Dictionary of National Biography. 1968 Markus, Julia. Dared and Done: The Marriage of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert Browning. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. Moore, Virginia. Distinguished Women Writers. New York: EP Dulton & CO., Inc. Publishers, 1934. Pickering, George. Creative Malady. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Radley, Virginia L. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1972. Roberts, Adam. Robert Browning Revisited. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996.

Cicero :: essays research papers

Marcus Tullius Cicero, is remembered in modern times as the greatest Roman orator and innovator of what became known as Ciceronian rhetoric. He was the son of a wealthy family of Arpinium. He made his first appearance in the courts in 81. His brilliant defense, in 80 or early 79, of Sextus Roscius against a fabricated charge of parricide established his reputation at the bar. After his election as consul for 63 his chief concern was to discover and make public the seditious intentions of his rival Catiline, who, defeated in 64, appeared again at the consular elections in 63 (over which Cicero presided, wearing armour beneath his toga). Catiline lost and planned to carry out armed uprisings in Italy and arson in Rome. Evidence incriminating the conspirators was secured and they were executed on Cicero's responsibility. Cicero, announcing their death to the crowd with the single word vixerunt ("they are dead"), received a tremendous ovation from all classes. He was hailed by Catulus as pater patriae, "father of his country". This was the climax of his career. At the end of 60, Cicero declined Caesar's invitation to join the political alliance of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, and also Caesar's offer in 59 of a place on his staff in Gaul. When Publius Clodius, whom Cicero had antagonized, became tribune in 58, Cicero was in danger, and in March fled Rome. In 57, thanks to the activity of Pompey and particularly the tribune Milo, he was recalled on August 4. Cicero landed at Brundisium on that day and was acclaimed all along his route to Rome, where he arrived a month later. Pompey renewed his compact with Caesar and Crassus at Luca in April 56. Cicero then agreed, under pressure from Pompey, to align himself with the three in politics. He was obliged to accept a number of distasteful defenses, and he abandoned public life. In 51 he was persuaded to govern the province of Cilicia, in south Asia Minor, for a year. By the time Cicero returned to Rome, Pompey and Caesar were struggling for complete power. He disapproved of Caesar's dictatorship; yet he realized that he would have been one of the first victims of Caesar's enemies, had they triumphed. Cicero was not involved in the conspiracy to kill Caesar on March 15, 44, and was not present in the Senate when he was murdered.

America’s Two Assemblies Essay

Introduction The U.S. government is composed of a bicameral Congress. The first one is the Senate, which is represented equally by the states. The second one is the House of Representatives, which is represented by population. This setup is proposed by the Connecticut Compromise, which combines the proposal of New Jersey and Virginia regarding the issues surrounding the creation of a new Congress. New Jersey, one of the smaller states, insisted that each state should have equal representation in the Congress. But the Virginia Plan argued that a legislature based on population is more fitting. So as a result, the two proposals were combined satisfactorily forming the two houses of the Congress (Lader 2002, 55). The U.S. Senate, or the upper house, is bestowed with different powers, one of which is the power to approve the laws and treaties created by the presidential or the executive branch of the government, as well as the ones coming from the lower house. It approves the laws and treaties by the virtue of two-thirds of votes of the whole Senate population. If that number is not reached, the law can be outwardly rejected, shelved, or is requested to be amended (Powers and Procedures 2006, 1). The lower house, or the House of Representatives, on the other hand, is bestowed the power to create bill which, in turn will turn into a law that the whole nation will follow, and eventually, benefit from. The House of Representatives meets to create bills and resolutions, discusses them, and passes them on to the Senate for further review and ratification (The Legislative Process 2006, 1). These are the basic functions of both the Houses. The functions of creating laws will be further discussed in this paper to show that these two assemblies are essential in any system of government to ensure checks and balances on government power. II. Making a Law A bill starts from an idea of a person. It won’t matter if he is a part of the Congress, a social group or organization, or just a regular citizen. The idea then is brought to the House of Representatives so that they can hear out the pros and cons about it. A group especially designed to cater to the needs and the interest of that idea hears it. For example, if the idea is about education, the House Committee on Education and the Workforce handles it. The law starts from a single thought that is processed and formed into a bill (Donovan 2004, 6-11). All American law starts out this way – as a bill. A bill is a document that proposes an entirely new law or an amendment to an existing one. The bill can be passed by any member of the Congress, even though the idea of making a law comes from government departments or from political parties, as announced in the party platforms during election campaigns. A bill passed by a member of the House of Representative as projected by the government is called the â€Å"Government Bill.† If an individual member of the Congress passes a bill, it is called a â€Å"Private Member’s Bill† (Brody 2001, 1-3). A bill is not a law yet; it has to be approved first by both the Houses of the Congress, and should be affirmed by the incumbent President. The two Houses of Congress will be assessing the bill and has the power to add proposals to make the necessary changes in it. These proposals are usually debated on; speeches are crafted to pronounce a member’s stand towards the bill. The Congress will be voting towards the approval or the shelving of the bill. Usually, the bill has to be read thrice and has to go through all the necessary changes before it is successfully passed on each House of Congress (Holder 1997, 1-4). Here, we see the interaction of the two Houses of the Congress. A law can impact the nation’s economy, and so that the lawmakers themselves, either from the upper or lower house won’t make a law that would benefit them individually or wholly. Intense deliberation and scrutiny is performed on the every bill that was conceptualized and is passed in the hope that it will be implemented only to benefit the many (Brady & McCubbins 2002, 17). III. The Showcase of Balance The innate need of one House of the Congress for the other shows that there is balance in the legislative branch of the government itself. One cannot exist without the other. A bill will not become a law in the absence of either the houses. There would be no law implemented and conceptualized by just one House alone. A single law has to go through the process as required by both the Houses of the Congress (Sajo 1999, 69). These laws, on the other hand, will not become valid without being finalized and approved by the executive branch of government, which is composed of the President and his Cabinet. The final say still belongs to the Head of State. But he cannot influence the Congress as to what laws they should make or ratify. The executive branch can propose and lobby for a bill, but it cannot fully instruct the Congress to just pass it in its favor. Even if the bill is proposed from the above, it still has to go through the same processes. No special treatment is given (Sajo 1999, 89). At this point, the balance between the two branches of the government, namely executive and legislative becomes evident. The President of the United States in his supreme power and capacity, cannot, in any way, influence the Congress to absolutely work for him. He cannot mandate what laws he wanted to be created and passed over to him for finalization. In essence, his office is equal to the legislative office. They work in parallel of each other, so that one cannot take advantage of one another (Sajo 1999, 99). Without the Congress doing its job, the President will have the freedom of making laws himself for whatever reasons he finds urgent. And laws have a big impact to a nation. One wrong law could mean economic distress. One selfish law could suppress freedom. One inappropriate law could wreak havoc. Without the Congress, the President will have his absolute power. The U.S. democratic form of government is gone and a totalitarian form of government will take its place. When that happens, the power shifts heavily to the executive branch of the government (Borrelli 2002, 18). Another branch of the government is the judicial branch. Although the branch does not actively participate in the law-making process, it is directly involved in the implementation of such laws. Even if the legislative body makes the laws and the executive finalizes it, they do not participate in the process of making sure that the laws are fully observed and strictly followed by all members of the society. This is the job of the judiciary. The law applies to all, and that includes the lawmakers who created them and the President of the United States himself. Without the judicial branch of government doing its assigned task of maintaining harmony and peace within the nation’s constituents, the laws would become worthless (Berger et al 2001, 606). IV. The Law and the Society A harmonious society simply cannot exist unless the people who belong in it respect all the governing law implemented to a considerable degree. Laws have the power to settle certain issues in the society and the government. If all people respect the law enough, they would choose to reconcile their individual differences to the context of what is right and valid, as provided by the law’s provisions. All laws should be respectable and sound enough to be appreciated by everyone. Law and morality should also come hand in hand; otherwise, the people will have to choose either to lose their morality or their respect of the law. Laws are created so as to maintain justice in the society; therefore law and justice should be one and the same in the minds of the people (Bastiat 2004, 22). Lawmakers should take it upon themselves to make and amend laws according to the interests of the general public and not for their own personal gains. Laws should help accelerate the resolution of current social conflicts and national dilemma. Every law in the land should represent their citizens accordingly. The law is so powerful it can make a society; and that power is also enormous enough to destroy it in a rather big and convincing way (Lempert & Sanders 1986, 15-20). And this is the main responsibility bestowed upon the shoulders of the legislative branch of government. A balanced government cannot exist in the absence of the Congress. The power will swing indefinitely to either the judicial or the executive branch. And the result of that can prove to be perilous to the society (Lempert & Sanders 1986, 26-27). V. Conclusion The American law is intensely compiled, created, and enacted to serve a greater purpose in the society. The burden of enhancing the laws does not depend solely on the solons and lawmakers. We, as individual members of the society, have an immense duty to promote and participate in the creation of these laws as well. We have to be active members of the society and have to make a mark for our own good. We should all help the legislative branch to preserve the balance of power in the government and the society. Works Cited Bastiat, Frederick. (2004). The Law. Montana: Kessinger Publishing. Berger, Marsall J., Schatz Gerald S., Laufer Deborah S. (2001). Federal Administrative Dispute Resolution Deskbook. Illinois: American Bar Association. Borrelli, Maryanne. (2002). The President’s Cabinet: Gender, Power, and Representation. Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Brady, David W & McCubbins, Matthew D. (2002). Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress. California: Stanford University Press. Brody, David C. (2001). Criminal Law. Maryland: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Donovan, Sandy. (2004). Making Laws: A Look at How a Bill Becomes a Law. Minnesota: Lerner Publications. Holder, Angela R. (1997). The Meaning of the Constitution. New York: Barron’s Educational Series. Lader, Curt. (2002). Barrons How to Prepare for the Ap U.S. Government and Politics. New York: Barron’s Educational Series. Lempert, Richard & Sanders Joseph. (1986). An Invitation to Law and Social Science: Deserts, Disputes and Distribution. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Powers & Procedures. (2006). United States Senate. [Online] Available at http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/history/one_item_and_teasers/powers.htm. Sajo, Andras. (1999). Limiting Government: An Introduction to Constitutionalism. New York: Central European University Press. The Legislative Process. (2006). United State House of Represenatives. [Online] Available at http://www.house.gov/house/Tying_it_all.shtml.

Embarking Patriotic Immortality: Rhetorical Analysis

Daniel Aubertine Dr. Viera 10/11/2011 Final Draft Embarking Patriotic Immortality: Rhetorical Analysis of the Gettysburg Address The Gettysburg address was given on the grounds of a historical battlefield in Gettysburg Pennsylvania during the American Civil War on November 19th, 1863 by the late President Abraham Lincoln. The brief, powerful speech that he delivered to fifteen to twenty thousand people is regarded as one of the greatest in American history. It is considered the turning point of the Civil War, helping preserve the union and keep America together.Lincoln’s famous war-time speech, given on the graves of fallen soldiers, uses remarkable pathos along with an astonishing endowment to the history of American speeches through diction and patriotic passion. Following the three-day bloodbath that occurred in the fields of Gettysburg Pennsylvania in early July, thousands of bloody corpses rotted in the summer’s scorching heat. Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Curtin a ppointed David Willis, a prominent Gettysburg lawyer, to oversee the project. An interstate commission was formed, money was raised, and seventeen acres of land at the battle site was purchased.The federal government provided the coffins. By November the cemetery was ready for dedication (Hay). The event was set-up so that orator Edward Everett would be the main speaker of the day. Lincoln sought to speak at this event because it would be a prime opportunity to boost the Union’s war efforts. Crowds of fifteen to twenty thousand citizens and soldiers gathered around the stage and listened to Everett speak for nearly two hours (Borade). Lincoln then rose and spoke for just under two minutes, and the crowd was speechless (Hay).Throughout the speech Lincoln uses the pathos to make the audience feel emotionally invested in the speech through guilt and courage. The audience is standing six feet above their fellow citizens who died in battle on their behalf, and to preserve the Amer ican way of life. Lincoln uses the location of the speech as emotional leverage on the crowd. Many of the members in the audience were either soldiers or citizens who lost loved ones in the battle of Gettysburg. Lincoln uses the guilty conscience of the audience members as persuasion into his main idea that the union cannot give up the fight.Lincoln states in his address, â€Å"We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who have gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. † He effectively uses pathos as a transition into a strong initiative that America should fight for the soldiers who lost their lives. The feeling of guilt is also intertwined and overcome by a feeling of courage in Lincoln’s speech. He makes the citizens who are opposed to the war feel guilty, and the citizens who are for the war, and the soldiers who are fighting, feel courage.The courageous compo nent of the speech that is felt by the audience is inspired by reminding them how heroic the soldiers who died on this field were. An example of this is when Lincoln states,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion†¦Ã¢â‚¬  They faced terrifying situations with courage and, in the end, gave their lives for what they believed in. The soldiers’ courage is the source of the courage for the audience. The inspiration though emotion that Lincoln delivered was the driving force of this inspirational speech.The incredible diction used by the president is the factor that set this historical speech apart from all the rest. Not once in his 272 word speech did the president use the word â€Å"I† or â€Å"me†. Lincoln was not that kind of man; he was unselfish and never distinguished himself from the audience. Another key aspect of Lincoln’s speech that is used very o ften in all types of writing is the use of repetition. He doesn’t repeat large memorable phrases; he repeats small words that seem to have great power. Throughout the speech he uses the words â€Å"we† and â€Å"us† a total of twelve times, referring to himself and the audience.Also, he often says the word â€Å"here† referring to the hallowed ground of Gettysburg to further associate himself with his audience (Zimmer, 4). This heavy use of plural first person tense creates a strong sense of unity with the audience and himself. Additionally he utilizes a strong vocabulary throughout the speech. He employed many complex sentences for an overall intelligent-sounding speech. For example, â€Å"Four score and seven years ago†¦ † is very poetic and elegant, much more dignified than simply saying â€Å"Eighty- seven†. Lincoln uses his words to dig deep into the udiences hearts and pull out every sense of patriotism that he can get. Each one o f the 272 words that he spoke that day was to bring out the American passion that is needed for victory in the Civil war. He begins by mentioning our forefathers and how they created this nation built on equality and liberty. Then he proceeds to tell that the principles on which the nation was founded are under attack. This immediately gets the audience in the mood for being inspired to act, because soon after this he hits them with pathos, the emotions of guilt and courage.But he ends the short speech with a powerful conclusion, â€Å"It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion— that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain— that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not pe rish from the earth. † Lincoln’s powerful closing words left the audience in muted shock.The short powerful speech is one of the most patriotic in American history. Lincoln’s famous war-time speech given on the graves of fallen soldiers uses remarkable pathos along with an astonishing endowment to the history of American speeches through diction, and patriotic passion. The brief, powerful speech that he delivered to fifteen to twenty thousand people is regarded as one of the greatest in American history. It is considered the turning point of the Civil War, helping preserve the union and keep America together.The inspirational, patriotic, persuasive speech given by Lincoln shows just how good a speech can be from effective use of pathos, diction and patriotism. Works Cited Borade, Gaynor. â€Å"Summary and Significance of the Gettysburg Address. † Buzzle Web Portal: Intelligent Life on the Web. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 Oct. 2011. . Hay, John . â€Å"Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, 1863. † EyeWitness to History – history through the eyes of those who lived it. N. p. , n. d. Web. 17 Oct. 2011. .